Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory, Musculoskeletal, and Neuromotor Fitness in Apparently Healthy Adults: Guidance for Prescribing Exercise

Garber, Carol Ewing Ph.D., FACSM, (Chair); Blissmer, Bryan Ph.D.; Deschenes, Michael R. PhD, FACSM; Franklin, Barry A. Ph.D., FACSM; Lamonte, Michael J. Ph.D., FACSM; Lee, I-Min M.D., Sc.D., FACSM; Nieman, David C. Ph.D., FACSM; Swain, David P. Ph.D., FACSM

Abstract

SUMMARY: The purpose of this Position Stand is to provide guidance to professionals who counsel and prescribe individualized exercise to apparently healthy adults of all ages. These recommendations also may apply to adults with certain chronic diseases or disabilities, when appropriately evaluated and advised by a health professional. This document supersedes the 1998 American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) Position Stand, "The Recommended Quantity and Quality of Exercise for Developing and Maintaining Cardiorespiratory and Muscular Fitness, and Flexibility in Healthy Adults." The scientific evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of exercise is indisputable, and the benefits of exercise far outweigh the risks in most adults. A program of regular exercise that includes cardiorespiratory, resistance, flexibility, and neuromotor exercise training beyond activities of daily living to improve and maintain physical fitness and health is essential for most adults. The ACSM recommends that most adults engage in moderate-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise training for ≥30 min·d⁻¹ on ≥5 d·wk⁻¹ for a total of ≥150 min·wk⁻¹, vigorous-intensity cardiorespiratory exercise training for ≥20 min·d⁻¹ on ≥3 d·wk⁻¹ (≥75 min·wk⁻¹), or a combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity exercise to achieve a total energy expenditure of ≥500-1000 MET·min·wk⁻¹. On 2-3 d·wk⁻¹, adults should also perform resistance exercises for each of the major muscle groups, and neuromotor exercise involving balance, agility, and coordination. Crucial to maintaining joint range of movement, completing a series of flexibility exercises for each the major muscle-tendon groups (a total of 60 s per exercise) on ≥2 d·wk⁻¹ is recommended. The exercise program should be modified according to an individual's habitual physical activity, physical function, health status, exercise responses, and stated goals. Adults who are unable or unwilling to meet the exercise targets outlined here still can benefit from engaging in amounts of exercise less than recommended. In addition to exercising regularly, there are health benefits in concurrently reducing total time engaged in sedentary pursuits and also by interspersing frequent, short bouts of standing and physical activity between periods of sedentary activity, even in physically active adults. Behaviorally based exercise interventions, the use of behavior change strategies, supervision by an experienced fitness instructor, and exercise that is pleasant and enjoyable can improve adoption and adherence to prescribed exercise programs. Educating adults about and screening for signs and symptoms of CHD and gradual progression of exercise intensity and volume may reduce the risks of exercise. Consultations with a medical professional and diagnostic exercise testing for CHD are useful when clinically indicated but are not recommended for universal screening to enhance the safety of exercise

http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2011/07000/Quantity_and_Quality_of_Exercise_for_Developing.26.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxj00x20121231xL3

Youth Resistance Training: Updated Position Statement Paper From the National Strength and Conditioning Association

Faigenbaum, Avery D¹; Kraemer, William J²; Blimkie, Cameron J R³; Jeffreys, Ian⁴; Micheli, Lyle J⁵; Nitka, Mike⁶; Rowland, Thomas W

Abstract

Faigenbaum, AD, Kraemer, WJ, Blimkie, CJR, Jeffreys, I, Micheli, LJ, Nitka, M, and Rowland, TW. Youth resistance training: Updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association. J Strength Cond Res 23(5): S60-S79, 2009-Current recommendations suggest that school-aged youth should participate daily in 60 minutes or more of moderate to vigorous physical activity that is developmentally appropriate and enjoyable and involves a variety of activities (219). Not only is regular physical activity essential for normal growth and development, but also a physically active lifestyle during the pediatric years may help to reduce the risk of developing some chronic diseases later in life (196). In addition to aerobic activities such as swimming and bicycling, research increasingly indicates that resistance training can offer unique benefits for children and adolescents when appropriately prescribed and supervised (28,66,111,139,147,234). The qualified acceptance of youth resistance training by medical, fitness, and sport organizations is becoming universal (5,6,8,12,18,33,104,167,192,215).

Nowadays, comprehensive school-based programs are specifically designed to enhance health-related components of physical fitness, which include muscular strength (169). In addition, the health club and sport conditioning industry is getting more involved in the youth fitness market. In the U.S.A., the number of health club members between the ages of 6 and 17 years continues to increase (127,252) and a growing number of private sport conditioning centers now cater to young athletes. Thus, as more children and adolescents resistance train in schools, health clubs, and sport training centers, it is imperative to determine safe, effective, and enjoyable practices by which resistance training can improve the health, fitness, and sports performance of younger populations.

The National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) recognizes and supports the premise that many of the benefits associated with adult resistance training programs are attainable by children and adolescents who follow age-specific resistance training guidelines. The NSCA published the first position statement paper on youth resistance training in 1985 (170) and revised this statement in 1996 (72). The purpose of the present report is to update and clarify the 1996 recommendations on 4 major areas of importance. These topics include (a) the potential risks and concerns associated with youth resistance training, (b) the potential health and fitness benefits of youth resistance training, (c) the types and amount of resistance training needed by healthy children and adolescents, and (d) program design considerations for optimizing long-term training adaptations. The NSCA based this position statement paper on a comprehensive analysis of the pertinent scientific evidence regarding the anatomical, physiological, and psychosocial effects of youth resistance training. An expert panel of exercise scientists, physicians, and health/physical education teachers with clinical, practical, and research expertise regarding issues related to pediatric exercise science, sports medicine, and resistance training contributed to this statement. The NSCA Research Committee reviewed this report before the formal endorsement by the NSCA.

For the purpose of this article, the term children refers to boys and girls who have not yet developed secondary sex characteristics (approximately up to the age of 11 years in girls and 13 years in boys; Tanner stages 1 and 2 of sexual maturation). This period of development is referred to as preadolescence. The term adolescence refers to a period between childhood and adulthood and includes girls aged 12-18 years and boys aged 14-18 years (Tanner stages 3 and 4 of sexual maturation). The terms youth and young athletes are broadly defined in this report to include both children and adolescents.

By definition, the term resistance training refers to a specialized method of conditioning, which involves the progressive use of a wide range of resistive loads and a variety of training modalities designed to enhance health, fitness, and sports performance. Although the term resistance training, strength training, and weight training are sometimes used synonymously, the term resistance training encompasses a broader range of training modalities and a wider variety of training goals. The term weightlifting refers to a competitive sport that involves the performance of the snatch and clean and jerk lifts.

This article builds on previous recommendations from the NSCA and should serve as the prevailing statement regarding youth resistance training. It is the current position of the NSCA that:

1. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program is relatively safe for youth.

2. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can enhance the muscular strength and power of youth.

3. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can improve the cardiovascular risk profile of youth.

4. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can improve motor skill performance and may contribute to enhanced sports performance of youth.

5. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can increase a young athlete's resistance to sports-related injuries.

6. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can help improve the psychosocial well-being of youth.

7. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can help promote and develop exercise habits during childhood and adolescence

http://www.athensacademy.net/strength/Youth_Pos_Paper_200902.pdf

Exercise as a Management Strategy for the Overweight and Obese: Where Does Resistance Exercise Fit in?

Sword, David O. PT, DPT, CSCS

Abstract

SUMMARY: EXCESS BODYWEIGHT, SPECIFICALLY EXCESS FAT WEIGHT, INCREASES THE RISK OF CHRONIC DISEASE AND PREMATURE DEATH. INCREASED PHYSICAL ACTIVITY/EXERCISE IS A RECOMMENDED STRATEGY FOR THOSE SEEKING TO EFFECTIVELY REDUCE AND MANAGE BODYWEIGHT. TRADITIONALLY, WEIGHT MANAGEMENT EXERCISE RECOMMENDATIONS HAVE FOCUSED ON AEROBIC-TYPE ACTIVITIES, SUCH AS WALKING, BIKING, SWIMMING, AND THE LIKE, WHICH TEND TO RESULT IN A SIGNIFICANT CALORIC EXPENDITURE DURING THE EXERCISE SESSION. STUDIES SUGGEST THAT RESISTANCE EXERCISE CAN ALSO PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN A LONG-TERM WEIGHT MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, ALBEIT THROUGH DIFFERENT MECHANISMS. THIS ARTICLE EXPLORES CURRENT ACTIVITY/EXERCISE RECOMMENDATIONS FOR WEIGHT LOSS/MANAGEMENT AND DISCUSSES THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF RESISTANCE EXERCISE.

http://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/Fulltext/2012/10000/Exercise_as_a_Management_Strategy_for_the.7.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxj18x20121112xL12

Integrating Mental Skills Training Into a Strength and Conditioning Program

Brian Zuleger, MS, CSCS and Pat Ivey, MEd, CSCS

How to effectively integrate mental skills training into a collegiate strength and conditioning program.

Introduction

Many professional and university-level competitive athletes are currently utilizing the services of sport psychologists, and their performances are benefiting from the knowledge and skills learned from these professional educators. There are many sport psychology professionals working with colleges and universities both as professors and private consultants. Some schools have gone as far as to implement full-fledged sport psychology programs within their athletic departments with full-time staff. An area that sport psychology is rarely used, but has great potential for application, is the strength and conditioning program designed by the strength coaches. The focus for this Hot Topic will be how to integrate mental skills training into a collegiate strength and conditioning program effectively.

How Can Mental Skills Training Help My Athletes?

The basis of sport psychology can be simplified to the mental skill of thinking right in sport (4). All athletes have thoughts, sometimes they think correctly and sometimes incorrectly. Athletes may have multiple thoughts over a short period of time while other times they may obsess about one thought for an extended period of time. Regardless of the number of thoughts an athlete has, it is not possible to have more than one thought at a time. Thus, it is important for athletes to be aware of their thoughts in an effort to focus on the thoughts conducive to achieving peak performance. When wrong thoughts occur, athletes need to be aware and have an action plan to be able to re-focus on the right thoughts. When an athlete thinks right, the chances for improved performance are much higher (4).

Focus

Focus is a skill in the same way that passing a football or performing a power clean is a skill. Therefore, focus can be learned in the same way as throwing a football can be learned (3). The five keys to teaching the skill of focus are time orientation, positive self-talk, composure, concentration, and confidence (3).  

The first component of focus is being “in the moment” and “totally in the present” (3). This Hot Topic established that thinking right is where everything starts. In order to focus, the athlete must be thinking right and also thinking in the present. Thoughts can be past, present, or future oriented (Figure 1). A present oriented focus is necessary in order for athletes to perform at their best in the moment. Awareness of the need to be in the present is the first step. The second step is implementing a control strategy; thought stoppage is considered a control strategy. When an athlete attempts to be in the moment and has wrong thoughts (past or future, doubt, fear, anxiety, etc.) one method for thought stoppage is to ask the question, “where are you?” with the answer being, “right here, right now,” (3). Another method is to use a physical cue such as wearing a rubber band or bracelet that can be snapped to cue the termination of the wrong thought and replace it with a right thought (7,8). Athletes often go to the weight room for conditioning before or after their technical practice. It is easy for them to think about future or past practices instead of the present strength and conditioning session. As a strength and conditioning coach, mastering this step of focus with your athletes will help them mentally transition not only into the weight room session but also between exercises, which increases the quality of the session.  

 

Figure 1. Thought Time Orientation (3) 

Self-talk is the internal mental conversation that occurs all the time. Part of focus is shifting self-talk from negative to positive. Athletes often develop habits negative self-talk, which is thinking wrong. Athletes must learn to use affirmations to generate positive self-talk. Affirmations are strong positive statements about yourself (2,3). Affirmations should be specific to the individual, positive, logical, strategic, motivating, and powerful (3). Belief in self and belief in method are keys to having strong positive affirmations. Athletes might doubt their ability to perform a certain exercise, lift a heavier weight than normal, or they may really dislike a certain exercise. By using positive affirmations to reaffirm their competence, athletes can be better prepared to perform and excel (5).

Composure can be viewed at as energy management. Learning to control physical, mental, and emotional energy is the essence of composure (7). The energy levels of athletes have optimal levels for performance, often referred to as optimal arousal (Figure 2). This optimal level of arousal varies depending on the specific demands of the activity. In the weight room, an athlete may need a high level of energy in a short time period in order to perform a max lift. In contrast, a lift for endurance purposes may require some energy to be conserved in order to complete the sets and reps. Peak performance occurs at the optimal arousal level, thus if an athlete is has too much or too little energy for the given task, performance may suffer. As a strength and conditioning coach, you can teach your athletes how to “dial it in” so that they are at their optimal level for peak performance. This takes practice as each athlete responds differently.

   

Figure 2. Energy Levels - Optimal Arousal (3) 

Concentration requires identifying what matters, and then focusing on it (3). The weight room can be a great place to practice concentration. In a weight room there are typically a few distractions, the setting is a controlled environment, and the tasks often involve performing the action individually. Athletes can learn and practice concentration to stay focused for a certain time period, and then practice it over and over again for each rep and set. The varying exercises and warm-up/cool-down routines allow athletes to practice concentrating for a variety of activities, which can be transferred to the various areas of sport and life.

Cook’s model of concentration (Figure 3) uses a 4-step routine, which consists of observation, strategy, imaging (visualization), and trust (1,3). Within each step, there are specific tasks. The first step is to observe. In the weight room this may involve looking around at who is in the room. Is it full of people or is it just a coach and athlete? Is there music playing? What is the temperature? What equipment is needed for the session? The second step is to form a strategy for the activity. In the weight room, this may involve reviewing the technique for the particular exercise. What is required to perform it correctly? What do you personally need to focus on when performing this exercise? The third step is imaging, or visualizing. In this step, the athletes visualize performing the exercises correctly and successfully. The athletes think about what it feels like to perform the activities in this way. At this point, all decisions have been made, there should be no more thoughts questioning the task. The final step is trust. This can be accomplished by using some simple cues to reaffirm trust in preparation and ability. Cook created this simple cue, which applies to any activity, “see it, feel it, trust it,” (1,3). It should be noted that this is just one example of a cue, and cues should have a personalized and powerful meaning for each athlete. At this point, the athletes are ready to perform and should be mentally passive and physically active.

 

Figure 3. Cook's Model of Concentration (3) 

Confidence is a just a thought. Like any other thought, you can make a choice to be confident or not to be confident. Athletes have the ability to choose their attitude and choosing to be confident may help improve focus and performance. Choosing to become more competent and choosing to focus on performance are two keys to building confidence (3). Competence is the knowledge of how to do something and knowing that you can do it. Competence is gained through practice and working to learn the physical and mental skills necessary for the sport. Competence builds confidence.

Everyone wants to win and often, as athletes and coaches, we worry about losing and everything that goes along with that. Instead, coaches and athletes should focus on the performance and the process that is necessary for the best chance of success. Strength and conditioning plays a role in the process of developing athletes to have the best chance to win in every sport. Setting goals and teaching athletes to focus on the process during strength and conditioning sessions and how the exercises will help them work toward their goals and build competence. As athletes build competence and attain their goals, they build their confidence. This is the essence of mental skills training and sport psychology.

Goal Attainment

Athletes are good at setting goals but rarely are athletes good at setting goals that are attainable. The idea with goal attainment is that if the goal is realistic, specific, measureable, and has a time orientation then it has a better chance of being attained. Long-term goals (e.g., bench press 225 lb 20 times by a certain date) are important, but the bulk of the time should be spent on attaining short-term goals (e.g., bench press 225 lb 5 times in 4 sets with rest). Short-term goals should be action-specific in relation to the long-term goal (2). With each short-term goal that is attained, confidence grows and thus performance improves (2,5,8). Goal attainment with short-term goals means that goal setting is a reoccurring process, not a once per year or season process; it is a continuous process that occurs daily and weekly.

Role of the Strength and Conditioning Coach

The strength and conditioning coach can play a unique role in the delivery of sport psychology as the coach often works with the athletes on a year-round basis. Having this consistent long-term contact with the athletes allows for relationships to be established over time and for the athletes to build trust in the coach (8). Athletes may be resistant at first to “buying into” mental skills training, but with time and a consistent well-planned message from the coaching staff, and strength coaches, athletes learn to adjust to the idea of doing mental skills training. Another benefit to the strength and conditioning coach integrating mental skills training is that the weight room can be a great place to learn mental skills as there are often multiple reps of the same exercise along with multiple different types of exercises, which allows for multiple opportunities to practice your mental skills, as mentioned earlier.

Comprehensive Integrated Approach

Integrating mental skills training requires a comprehensive approach that involve every individual that plays a role in the development of an athlete. The head coach of the sport is the most important leader for establishing a philosophy that includes sport psychology as a part of the process. The next two most influential people in the development of an athlete are the strength and conditioning coach and the athletic trainer. Both of these individuals spend many hours with the athlete over the course of a year. Other people involved that may spend less time with the athlete include the sport psychologist, academic support staff, sport nutritionist, etc. When everyone involved in guiding and influencing the athlete is speaking the same language and incorporating mental skills into their piece of the program it makes for better communication and increases the chance of success of the overall program.

Conclusion

Mental skills are an important aspect of athletic development and, like physical skills, should be practiced. The benefit to mental skills training is that it can be practiced anywhere at any time. The weight room can be a great environment and the strength and conditioning coach can be a great teacher for integrating mental skills training into the program. However, it is necessary to become educated in the proper science and technique behind training athletes physically, and it is also necessary to have proper education in the science and application of psychological training specifically pertaining to sport. Every coach wants their athletes to be able to perform at their best at the right time. Sport psychology is a great resource to help develop athletes to be able to perform at their peak. It is recommended that strength and conditioning coaches seek out sport psychology professionals who are actively involved in working with sport and utilize them as a resource to help improve your athletes and programs.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank a group of people that without their vision and support this comprehensive integrated program of athletic development would not be possible at the University of Missouri. Athletic Director: Mike Alden; Executive Associate Athletic Director for Student Services: Dr. Bryan Maggard; Director of Sport Psychology: Dr. Rick McGuire; and the head coaches. A special thanks to Coach Gary Pinkel for his support and assistance in integrating sport psychology into his program, and his work with Dr. McGuire and Coach Ivey in developing the “From the Whistle to the Snap” program for Missouri Football.

References

1. Cook, DL. Creative concentration. In Vernacchia, RA, McGuire, RT, and Cook, DL (Eds.), Coaching Mental Excellence: It Does Matter Whether You Win or Lose. Palo Alto, CA: Warde Publishers; 81-92, 1996.
2. McGuire, RT. From the Whistle to the Snap: Winning the Mental Game of Football. Ames, IA: Championship Productions; 2012.
3. McGuire, RT. The skill of focus. Techniques 5(4): 8-15, 2012.
4. McGuire, RT. Thinking right in sport: The critical importance of mental training. Techniques 1(3): 2008.
5. McGuire, RT. Confidence is a choice. Track and Field Coaches Review 72(1): 1999.
6. McGuire, RT. Concentration skills for the track and field athletes: An application of Cook’s model of concentration. Track and Field Quarterly 92(1): 1992.
7. Vernacchia, RA. Inner Strength. Palo Alto, CA: Warde Publishers; 2003.
8. Vernacchia, RA, McGuire, RT, and Cook, DL. Coaching Mental Excellence: It Does Matter Whether You Win or Lose. Palo Alto, CA: Warde; 1996.

Recommended Resources

1. Book and DVD- Ivey, P, and Stoner, J. Complete Conditioning for Football. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2012.
2. Book- Orlick, T. In Pursuit of Excellence. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2007.
3. Book- Jackson, S, and Csikszentmihalyi, M. Flow in Sports: The Keys to Optimal Experiences and Performances. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1999.
4. Book- Vernacchia, R, and Statler, T. The Psychology of High-Performance Track and Field. Mountain View, CA: Tafnews Press; 2005.
5. Book- Williams, JM. Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance. New York, NY: McGraw Hill Higher Education; 2009.
6. Book- Shields, DL, and Bredemeier, BL. True Competition. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2009.

Disclaimer

The NSCA encourages the exchange of diverse opinions. The ideas, comments and materials presented herein do not necessarily reflect the NSCA's official position on an issue. The NSCA assumes no responsibility for any statements made by authors, whether as fact, opinion or otherwise.

http://www.nsca.com/ContentTemplates/PublicationArticleDetail.aspx?id=2147485471

The Role of Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC) in Weight Loss Programs

Ed McNeely, MS, Strength and Conditioning Coach Rowing Canada

Is EPOC Large Enough to Cause Weight Loss?

Metabolic rate is not static; it varies throughout the day based on food intake, time of day, and physical activity. Changes in metabolic rate during the post-exercise recovery period following an exercise session have received much attention in both popular and scientific literature. The recovery period is typically biphasic with an initial recovery period lasting 10 seconds up to several minutes, and a second slow phase that may last up to several hours (13). During this time, oxygen consumption is elevated due to increased catecholamine release, increased cardiac and pulmonary function, lactate and H+ removal, and to help restore metabolic processes to baseline levels (3). This increased oxygen consumption has been termed excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). EPOC, and the added calories used that accompanies the post-exercise increase in metabolism, has been proposed as a potentially important factor in weight loss (14).

Factors Affecting EPOC

Program design and the manipulation of variables such as intensity and duration can have a significant effect on the outcome of a training program. Aerobic exercise intensity has long been known to have an effect on EPOC (11,12). EPOC value, which are measured in L/min of oxygen consumption or Kcal/min, have been seen to more than double when increasing intensity from 55 to 95% of VO₂ max for two-minute intervals (20). Even when controlled for total energy expenditure during the exercise session, increasing exercise intensity from 50 to 75% VO₂ max results in an almost doubling of EPOC (16,19). While exercise intensity is the most important contributor to EPOC, accounting for 45.5% of the systematic variance in EPOC at exercise intensities above 50% of VO₂ max, there is a linear relationship between the duration of EPOC and the duration of the exercise session (2,5,6). This relationship holds true for both submaximal and supramaximal exercise.

EPOC and Supramaximal Work

The magnitude of EPOC increases with increased exercise intensity for both submaximal and supramaximal exercises (exercise at an intensity greater than VO₂ max) (5). As such, it has been speculated that the increased metabolic rate associated with EPOC is one of the primary contributing factors to the success of high intensity interval training (HIIT) programs for weight loss (3,7,18,22). Compared to continuous, lower intensity activity, sprint intervals create a significantly greater increase in EPOC. Laforgia, Withers, Ship, and Gore compared 30 min of continuous running at 70% VO₂max with 20 x 1-min intervals at 105% VO₂max with a 2-min rest period (14). They found nine-hour EPOC values of 6.9 ±3.8 and 15.0 ±3.3 liters of O₂ for the submaximal and supramaximal treatments, respectively. Even though the interval session produced a higher EPOC, the authors suggest that since this is the equivalent in kJ of about 75 mL of orange juice and that the EPOC was of little physiological significance to the subjects’ energy balance, the major contribution to weight loss would be through the energy expended during the actual exercise session (14). Even when the duration or volume of intervals are manipulated the increase in EPOC, although statistically significant, are probably not enough to play a major role in weight loss.

Tanaka, Shibuya, and Ogaki examined the EPOC of 7 x 30-s intervals with 15-s rest periods at 150% of VO₂ max (21). They found that the three-hour EPOC value was 10.5±2.4 L of oxygen, which amounts to approximately 50 kcal over the period of three hours or 16 kcal per hour (21). Bahr, Gronnerod, and Sejersted examined the effects of sprint volume on EPOC, having subjects perform 1, 2, or 3 x 120-s sprints at 108% of VO₂ max (1). They found that higher volumes of sprint training elicit a higher EPOC, but that even at the 3 x 120-s sprint, the four-hour EPOC total was 16.3±3.01 L of oxygen, or about 80 kcal of extra energy expenditure (1).

Similar results have been seen in resistance training studies. Kelleher et al. examined the differences between traditional and superset resistance exercise on post-exercise energy expenditure (9). They found that while supersetting produced a 33% greater EPOC, the energy expenditure during the 60-min recovery period amounted to only 18.96±1.79 kcal. The superset exercise session required 241.23±17.06 kcal (9).

While HIIT programs have gained in popularity as a tool for promoting fat or weight loss, the benefits of these programs are likely due to factors such as energy expended during training, changes in insulin sensitivity, or decreased appetite rather than EPOC, as the EPOC values are quite modest, accounting for less than 15% of total exercise and recovery energy expenditure (3,13).

Long-Term Effects of EPOC

An increased metabolic rate after exercise can occur for up to 24 hr with appropriate combinations of duration and intensity (13). Even though the amount of energy expenditure post-exercise is small, it could be argued that small increases over an extended period of time can amount to significant calories burned. In a metabolic chamber study of 24-hr energy expenditure, the authors found that EPOC amounted to 35±78 kcal on a day that involved periods of slow walking, brisk walking, and jogging at 65% VO₂ max, an amount that was not statistically significant (8). A more recent study found an increase of 190 kcal in metabolic rate over a 14.2-hr period following an exercise session, which is only 13.4 kcal per hour, or the equivalent of about two almonds (10). The exercise session resulted in an expenditure of 519 kcal.

There is also no difference in the 24-hr rate of fat use following exercise, regardless of intensity (15,17,23). Warren, Howden, Williams, Fell, and Johnson found after their comparisons of long and short duration exercise, high versus low intensity exercise and continuous versus interval exercise, concluded that even though there was an increase in fat oxidation during the recovery period following long duration and high-intensity interventions, the amount of fat oxidized after exercise may be inconsequential compared with what was oxidized during the exercise bout (24). This suggests that EPOC is not a primary contributor to the energy cost of exercise and that it does not alter substrate use enough to be of consequence in a weight loss program.;

Conclusion

Long-term adherence to exercise or physical activity is key for weight loss and maintenance of weight loss. The duration or intensity of activity required to elicit a prolonged EPOC are probably not well tolerated by obese or overweight untrained people (13). This is particularly true of higher intensity exercise, where even modest increases in intensity over a comfortable self-selected pace greatly diminish exercise enjoyment and adherence (4). Many popular infomercials and programs base their weight loss and fat burning claims on increased EPOC, yet EPOC values are modest compared to the actual energy expenditure from the exercise session itself, accounting for only 6 – 15% of the total energy cost (13). There is no evidence that EPOC alone can significantly contribute to weight loss.

References 

1. Bahr, R., Grønnerød, O, and Sejersted, O. Effect of supramaximal exercise on excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 24: 66–71, 1992. 
2. Bahr, R, Ingnes, O, Vaage, O, Sejersted, O, and Newsholme, E. Effect of duration of exercise on excess post-exercise O₂ consumption. J Appl Physiol 62: 485–490, 1987. 
3. Boutcher, S. High-intensity intermittent exercise and fat loss. Journal of Obesity 2011: 1–10, 2011. 
4. Ekkekakis, P, Parfitt, G, and Petruzzello, S. The pleasure and displeasure people feel when they exercise at different intensities decennial update and progress towards a tripartite rationale for exercise intensity prescription. Sports Med 41 (8): 641–671, 2011. 
5. Gore, C, and Withers, R. Effect of exercise intensity and duration on post-exercise metabolism J Appl Physiol 68: 2362–2368, 1990. 
6. Gore, C, and Withers, R. Effect of exercise intensity and duration on the oxygen deficit and post-exercise oxygen consumption. Eur J Appl Physiol 60: 169–174, 1990. 
7. Irving, B, Davis, C, Brock, D, Weltman, J, Barrett, E, Gaesser, G, and Weltman, A. Effect of exercise training intensity on abdominal visceral fat and body composition.Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 40(11): 1863–1872, 2008. 
8. Kazunori, O, Tanaka, S, Ishikawa-Takata, K, and Tabata, I. Twenty-four hour analysis of elevated energy expenditure after physical activity in a metabolic chamber: Models of daily total energy expenditure. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87: 1268–1276, 2008. 
9. Kelleher, A, Hackney, K, Fairchild, T, Keslacy, S, and Ploutz-Snyder, L. The metabolic costs of reciprocal supersets vs. traditional resistance exercise in young recreationally active adults. J Strength Cond Res 24(4): 1043–1051, 2010. 
10. Knab, A, Shanely, R, Corbin, K, Jin Sha, W, and Nieman, D. A 45-min vigorous exercise bout increases metabolic rate for 14 hours. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 43(9): 1643–1648, 2011. 
11. Knuttgen, H. Oxygen debt, lactate, pyruvate, and excess lactate after muscular work. Journal of Applied Physiology 17: 639 – 644, 1962. 
12. Knuttgen, H. Oxygen debt after submaximal physical exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology 29: 651 – 657, 1970. 
13. Laforgia, J, Withers, R, and Gore, C. Effects of exercise intensity and duration on the excess post-exercise oxygen consumption. Journal of Sports Sciences 24(12): 1247–1264, 2006. 
14. Laforgia, J, Withers, R, Shipp, N, and Gore, C. Comparison of energy expenditure elevations after submaximal and supramaximal running. J Appl Physiol 82(2): 661–666, 1997. 
15. Melanson, E, Sharp, T, Seagle, H, Horton, T, Donahoo, W, Grunwald, G, Hamilton, J, and Hill, J.Effect exercise intensity on 24-hr energy expenditure and nutrient oxidation. J Appl Physiol 92: 1045–1052, 2002. 
16. Phelain, J, Reinke, E, Harris, M, and Melby, C. Post-exercise energy expenditure and substrate oxidation in young women resulting from exercise bouts of different intensity. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 16: 140–146, 1997. 
17. Saris, W, and Schrauwen, P. Substrate oxidation differences between high- and low-intensity exercise are compensated over 24 hours in obese men. International Journal of Obesity 28: 759–765, 2004. 
18. Schoenfeld, B, and Dawes, J. High-intensity interval training: Applications for general fitness training. Strength and Conditioning Journal 31(6): 44–46, 2008. 
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http://www.nsca-lift.org/Education/E-learning/Hot-Topic--The-Role-of-Excess-Post-Exercise-Oxygen-Consumption-(EPOC)-in-Weight-Loss-Programs/

Worldwide Survey of Fitness Trends for 2013

Thompson, Walter R. Ph.D., FACSM

Abstract

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: From this article, the reader should understand the following concepts:

• the difference between a fad and a trend

• worldwide trends in the commercial, corporate, clinical (including medical fitness), and community health and fitness industry

• expert opinions about identified fitness trends for 2013


http://journals.lww.com/acsm-healthfitness/Fulltext/2012/11000/Worldwide_Survey_of_Fitness_Trends_for_2013.5.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxj18x20121226ACSMHTxL14

Resistance Training Reduces Subclinical Inflammation in Obese, Postmenopausal Women

PHILLIPS, MELODY D.¹; PATRIZI, ROBERT M.¹; CHEEK, DENNIS J.²; WOOTEN, JOSHUA S.³; BARBEE, JAMES J.⁴; MITCHELL, JOEL B.¹

Abstract

Purpose: Aerobic exercise is frequently prescribed to reduce inflammatory-related disease (cardiovascular disease and diabetes) risk. Resistance training (RT), however, may be key to maximizing anti-inflammatory benefits of consistent exercise. We examined the influence of RT on inflammatory biomarkers in obese, postmenopausal women.

Methods: Twenty-three women (65.6 ± 2.6 yr; body mass index, 33 kg·m⁻²) underwent 12 wk of RT (3 sets, 10 exercises, 3× per week, 8–12 repetition maximum (RM), resistance exercise (EX), N = 11) or social interaction intervention (SI, stretching, knitting, health lectures, 2× per week, control group (CON), N = 12). Both before (BT) and after (AT) RT or SI, blood was collected before (PR), immediately (PO), 2 h (2H), and 24 h (24H) after a single resistance exercise bout (RE) in EX and at the same time points in nonexercise, resting CON. For all time points, blood was analyzed for IL-6, leptin, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) (LPS-TNF) and IL-10 (LPS-IL10). PR samples were also examined for C-reactive protein, TNF-α, and adiponectin, and mRNA expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and MC1R. Subcutaneous adipose tissue was extracted BT and AT and analyzed for mRNA expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1, leptin, CD68, and TLR4.

Results: RT improved strength (44%) and reduced circulating C-reactive protein (−33%), leptin (−18%) and TNF-α (−29%) with no change in body composition. IL-6 decreased after SI in CON (−17%). LPS-TNF increased after SI or RT (CON +26%, EX +67%, respectively), whereas LPS-IL10 decreased in CON (−28%) but increased in EX (+20%). RT did not influence inflammatory biomarker gene expression in whole blood or subcutaneous adipose tissue. A single RE bout augmented LPS-TNF and LPS-IL10 at 24H in EX, particularly AT.

Conclusion: RT reduced markers of subclinical inflammation in circulation in obese, postmenopausal women in the absence of changes in body composition. Chronic RT also enhanced response to endotoxin challenge both at rest (PR) and 24 h after an acute RE bout (24H).

http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2012/11000/Resistance_Training_Reduces_Subclinical.8.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxj18x20121226ACSMHTxL6

Cardiorespiratory Fitness, LDL Cholesterol, and CHD Mortality in Men

FARRELL, STEPHEN W.¹; FINLEY, CARRIE E.¹; GRUNDY, SCOTT M.²

Abstract

Introduction: There are no published data regarding the joint association of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and LDL cholesterol concentration with subsequent CHD mortality in men.

Methods: A total of 40,718 healthy men received a comprehensive baseline clinical examination between 1971 and 2006. CRF was determined from a maximal treadmill exercise test. Participants were divided into categories of low (quintile 1), moderate (quintiles 2–3), and high (quintiles 4–5) CRF by age group, as well as by Adult Treatment Panel III–defined LDL categories. HRs for CHD mortality were computed with Cox regression analysis.

Results: A total of 557 deaths due to CHD occurred during 16.7 ± 9.0 yr (681,731 man-years) of follow-up. After adjustment for age, examination year, smoking status, family history, and body mass index, a significant positive trend in CHD mortality was shown across decreasing categories of CRF. HRs with 95% confidence interval were 1.0 (referent), 1.18 (0.94–1.47), and 2.10 (1.65–2.67) for high, moderate, and low fit groups, P trend <0.0001. Adjusted HRs were significantly higher across increasing LDL categories: 1.0 (referent), 1.30 (0.87–1.95), 1.54 (1.04–2.28), 2.16 (1.45–3.21), and 2.02 (1.31–3.13), P trend <0.0001. When grouped by CRF category as well as by LDL category, there was a significant positive trend (P < 0.02) in adjusted mortality across decreasing categories of CRF within each LDL category.

Conclusions: CRF is strongly and inversely associated with CHD mortality in men. Compared with men with low CRF, at a moderate to high level of CRF, the risk of mortality within each LDL category is significantly attenuated. This study suggests that measurement of CRF should be considered for routine cardiovascular risk assessment and risk management.

http://journals.lww.com/acsm-msse/Fulltext/2012/11000/Cardiorespiratory_Fitness,_LDL_Cholesterol,_and.12.aspx?WT.mc_id=EMxj18x20121226ACSMHTxL4